Knowledge gaps persist and hinder progress in eliminating mumps.

Mumps, a common childhood disease in the pre-vaccine era that causes swelling of the parotid salivary glands, can lead to orchitis, viral meningitis, and sensorineural deafness. While the incidence of disease decreased dramatically after the vaccine was added to standard vaccination schedules, the disease has made a substantial resurgence in recent years. As a result, it becomes critical to examine the factors involved in recurring outbreaks. Although low and incomplete vaccination coverage may be a key reason, it does not fully explain the issue due to the high rate of occurrence in populations with high vaccination coverage rates. Multiple studies suggest that waning immunity and secondary vaccine failure play a large role, the effects of which were previously masked by subclinical boosting. Significant knowledge gaps persist around the exact role and mechanism of waning immunity and demonstrate the need for more research in this area, as well as a reevaluation of mumps vaccine policy.

Personalized vaccinology: A review.

At the current time, the field of vaccinology remains empirical in many respects. Vaccine development, vaccine immunogenicity, and vaccine efficacy have, for the most part, historically been driven by an empiric "isolate-inactivate-inject" paradigm. In turn, a population-level public health paradigm of "the same dose for everyone for every disease" model has been the normative thinking in regard to prevention of vaccine-preventable infectious diseases. In addition, up until recently, no vaccines had been designed specifically to overcome the immunosenescence of aging, consistent with a post-WWII mentality of developing vaccines and vaccine programs for children. It is now recognized that the current lack of knowledge concerning how immune responses to vaccines are generated is a critical barrier to understanding poor vaccine responses in the elderly and in immunoimmaturity, discovery of new correlates of vaccine immunogenicity (vaccine response biomarkers), and a directed approach to new vaccine development. The new fields of vaccinomics and adversomics provide models that permit global profiling of the innate, humoral, and cellular immune responses integrated at a systems biology level. This has advanced the science beyond that of reductionist scientific approaches by revealing novel interactions between and within the immune system and other biological systems (beyond transcriptional level), which are critical to developing "downstream" adaptive humoral and cellular responses to infectious pathogens and vaccines. Others have applied systems level approaches to the study of antibody responses (a.k.a. "systems serology"), [1] high-dimensional cell subset immunophenotyping through CyTOF, [2,3] and vaccine induced metabolic changes [4]. In turn, this knowledge is being utilized to better understand the following: identifying who is at risk for which infections; the level of risk that exists regarding poor immunogenicity and/or serious adverse events; and the type or dose of vaccine needed to fully protect an individual. In toto, such approaches allow for a personalized approach to the practice of vaccinology, analogous to the substantial inroads that individualized medicine is playing in other fields of human health and medicine. Herein we briefly review the field of vaccinomics, adversomics, and personalized vaccinology.

Gene signatures associated with adaptive humoral immunity following seasonal influenza A/H1N1 vaccination.

This study aimed to identify gene expression markers shared between both influenza hemagglutination inhibition (HAI) and virus-neutralization antibody (VNA) responses. We enrolled 158 older subjects who received the 2010-2011 trivalent inactivated influenza vaccine. Influenza-specific HAI and VNA titers and mRNA-sequencing were performed using blood samples obtained at Days 0, 3 and 28 post vaccination. For antibody response at Day 28 versus Day 0, several gene sets were identified as significant in predictive models for HAI (n=7) and VNA (n=35) responses. Five gene sets (comprising the genes MAZ, TTF, GSTM, RABGGTA, SMS, CA, IFNG and DOPEY) were in common for both HAI and VNA. For response at Day 28 versus Day 3, many gene sets were identified in predictive models for HAI (n=13) and VNA (n=41). Ten gene sets (comprising biologically related genes, such as MAN1B1, POLL, CEBPG, FOXP3, IL12A, TLR3, TLR7 and others) were shared between HAI and VNA. These identified gene sets demonstrated a high degree of network interactions and likelihood for functional relationships. Influenza-specific HAI and VNA responses demonstrated a remarkable degree of similarity. Although unique gene set signatures were identified for each humoral outcome, several gene sets were determined to be in common with both HAI and VNA response to influenza vaccine.

An interaction quantitative trait loci tool implicates epistatic functional variants in an apoptosis pathway in smallpox vaccine eQTL data.

Expression quantitative trait loci (eQTL) studies have functionalized nucleic acid variants through the regulation of gene expression. Although most eQTL studies only examine the effects of single variants on transcription, a more complex process of variant-variant interaction (epistasis) may regulate transcription. Herein, we describe a tool called interaction QTL (iQTL) designed to efficiently detect epistatic interactions that regulate gene expression. To maximize biological relevance and minimize the computational and hypothesis testing burden, iQTL restricts interactions such that one variant is within a user-defined proximity of the transcript (cis-regulatory). We apply iQTL to a data set of 183 smallpox vaccine study participants with genome-wide association study and gene expression data from unstimulated samples and samples stimulated by inactivated vaccinia virus. While computing only 0.15% of possible interactions, we identify 11 probe sets whose expression is regulated through a variant-variant interaction. We highlight the functional epistatic interactions among apoptosis-related genes, DIABLO, TRAPPC4 and FADD, in the context of smallpox vaccination. We also use an integrative network approach to characterize these iQTL interactions in a posterior network of known prior functional interactions. iQTL is an efficient, open-source tool to analyze variant interactions in eQTL studies, providing better understanding of the function of epistasis in immune response and other complex phenotypes.

Transcriptomic profiles of high and low antibody responders to smallpox vaccine.

Despite its eradication over 30 years ago, smallpox (as well as other orthopox viruses) remains a pathogen of interest both in terms of biodefense and for its use as a vector for vaccines and immunotherapies. Here we describe the application of mRNA-Seq transcriptome profiling to understanding immune responses in smallpox vaccine recipients. Contrary to other studies examining gene expression in virally infected cell lines, we utilized a mixed population of peripheral blood mononuclear cells in order to capture the essential intercellular interactions that occur in vivo, and would otherwise be lost, using single cell lines or isolated primary cell subsets. In this mixed cell population we were able to detect expression of all annotated vaccinia genes. On the host side, a number of genes encoding cytokines, chemokines, complement factors and intracellular signaling molecules were downregulated upon viral infection, whereas genes encoding histone proteins and the interferon response were upregulated. We also identified a small number of genes that exhibited significantly different expression profiles in subjects with robust humoral immunity compared with those with weaker humoral responses. Our results provide evidence that differential gene regulation patterns may be at work in individuals with robust humoral immunity compared with those with weaker humoral immune responses.

Temporal sequence of transcription of perforin, Fas ligand, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha genes in rejecting skin allografts.

BACKGROUND: Perforin, Fas ligand (FasL), and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) have been implicated in cytolytic T lymphocyte (CTL) effector function. However, the relative roles of these effector molecules in allograft rejection are unclear, and there has been no rigorous quantitation of transcription of the respective genes throughout the period from transplantation to rejection. METHODS: We orthotopically transplanted mouse tail skin allografts and estimated the numbers of transcripts of these genes expressed by graft-infiltrating T cells with rigorous quantitative, competitive reverse transcribed PCR (QC-RT-PCR) that enabled the comparison of transcription of different genes. RESULTS: Perforin and FasL mRNA levels correlated closely with the rejection of allografts by normal hosts over the 4 days preceding rejection. Antibody-mediated depletion of host CD4+ T cells retarded perforin transcription and significantly suppressed FasL transcription, suggesting FasL was not required for allograft rejection. TNF-alpha transcription was the highest of these genes in this time period, but these levels were dwarfed by TNF-alpha transcription at 24 hr posttransplant when transcription in both autografts and allografts was 30-fold higher than in allografts on the day before rejection. Elimination of the function of these single or paired genes through genetic mutation or antibody treatment had no significant effect on the speed of rejection. CONCLUSIONS: The levels of perforin and FasL transcription appeared to be related to the process of allograft rejection in normal hosts. However, TNF-alpha transcription was highest during the posttransplant period suggesting that the principal role of TNF-alpha is in wound-healing rather than the effector phase of rejection.

Uniqueness of bare feet and its use as a possible means of identification.

In order to study the uniqueness of barefoot impressions, a computer database has been constructed using inked barefoot prints from volunteers. The data consists of 19 different measurements and a tracing of the impression of each foot. Searches through the present database of 4000 impressions produce an apparent match only if the margin of measurement error is set at an extremely large value. In these few cases, however, a visual examination of the 'matched' prints is sufficient to show that they are not the same.